Did COVID-19 affect rural households' subjective well-being? A social survey from rural China.

Improving rural households' subjective well-being is an important element of economic and social revitalization in the post-epidemic period. Based on the survey data obtained from rural households in Hubei Province, the center of the outbreak in China, and its surrounding areas, this paper explores the impact mechanisms of the COVID-19 epidemic on subjective well-being from both economic and sociological perspectives with the help of structural equation modeling. The results show that COVID-19 significantly influenced rural households' subjective well-being in China. Furthermore, COVID-19 indirectly affected their subjective well-being by influencing optimism. The negative impact is moderated by government intervention and income resilience. Therefore, strengthening the emergency management capacity of local governments and encouraging the diversification of rural households' income sources are important strategies to effectively resolve epidemic shocks and improve the level of well-being.

Internet Access and Educational Backwardness in the Times of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from Mexico's Rural Households

We evaluate the impact of Internet access on educational backwardness in rural Mexico, with a focus on gender differences. Based on data from Mexico's National Survey of Household Income and Expenditure in 2020 (Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares, ENIGH 2020) and a treatment econometric model, our results indicate that in the total sample of the rural sector, Internet access decreases up to 3.28% points the probability that an individual will experience educational backwardness. With respect to gender differences, our results suggest that the effect of Internet access on educational backwardness is greater for women than for men, due to prevalent gender inequality in rural Mexico. Our findings point to the need for better policymaking to narrow the digital divide and educational gap that have expanded during the COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico's rural sector. © 2023, The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

Health awareness of rural households towards COVID-19 pandemic in India: Evidence from Rural Impact Survey of the World Bank.

This paper aims at analysing the level of awareness of the symptoms and the methods of protection from COVID-19 based on the Rural Impact Survey of the World Bank, collected from 5200 households belonging to six states in India that is, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. Data has been analysed using chi-square test and regression analysis. Results of the analysis indicate that about 70.8% rural households are aware of the symptom of coronavirus, and 81.9% are aware of the preventive measures for controlling the spread of COVID-19. Analysis indicates a significant association between awareness level on symptoms and prevention of COVID-19 and socio-demographics and location. The study further analyses the key determinants of awareness of COVID-19 symptoms and preventive measures using the logistics regression model, indicating that age, gender, education, income, poverty status, access to information, cash relief and medical services are the determining factors of health awareness on COVID-19 pandemic among rural households in India. Considering the importance of self-protecting measures in fighting the pandemic, this paper highlights the importance of strengthening public awareness for containing the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic.

How Do Logistics Disruptions Affect Rural Households? Evidence from COVID-19 in China

Using a comprehensive survey of rural households during the early stage of the COVID-19 pandemic in China, we find that logistics disruptions due to the lockdown have resulted in severe economic losses for rural households. Insufficient production inputs and perishable outputs can aggravate the impact of logistics disruptions on losses, while the purchase of agriculture insurance and higher regional GDP can mitigate this effect. We further examine the mechanisms by which logistics disruptions affect rural households, including both sales and production channels in agricultural supply chains. The former includes changes in product prices and reduced sales, while the latter includes changes in input prices and shortages of raw materials, capital, and labor. Of these channels, logistics has the most severe impact on sales. Opening up the logistics of sales channels is the primary policy choice. More storage warehouses and insurance are also important preemptive measures. Building stable and sustainable agricultural supply chains can ensure rural household viability during the pandemic. © 2022 by the authors.

Impact of lockdown and government subsidies on rural households at early COVID-19 pandemic in China

Purpose: Given the scarcity of data during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic in China, the decision-making for non-pharmaceutical policies was mostly based on insufficient evidence. The purpose of this study is to assess the effectiveness of these policies, such as lockdown and government subsidies, on rural households and identify policy implications for China and other countries in dealing with pandemics. Design/methodology/approach: The authors survey 2,408 rural households by telephone from 101 counties across 17 provinces in China during the first stage of the pandemic (March 2020). The authors use the ordered probit model and linear regression model to study the overall impact of policies and then use the quantile regression model and sub-sample regression method to study the heterogeneity of the effects of government policies. Findings: The authors find that logistics disruption due to lockdown negatively affected rural households. Obstructed logistics is associated with a more significant loss for high-income households, while its impact on the loss expectation of low-income households is more severe. Breeding and other industries such as transport and sales suffer more from logistics than cultivation. The impact of logistics on intensive agricultural entities is more serious than that on professional farms. The government subsidy is more effective at reducing loss for low-income households. Lockdown and government subsidies have shown heterogeneous impacts on rural households. Practical implications: The overall economic losses experienced by rural households in the early stages of the pandemic are controllable. The government policies of logistics and subsidies should target specific groups. Originality/value: The authors evaluate the economic impacts of lockdown and government subsidies on rural households and show their heterogeneity among different groups. The authors further demonstrate the policy effectiveness in supporting rural households during the early stages of the pandemic and provide future policy guidance on major public health event. © 2022, Emerald Publishing Limited.

What attributes influence rural household's willingness to get vaccinated for COVID-19? Perspectives from six Chinese townships.

Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, vaccinations have been identified as the most effective mitigation strategy against the deadly virus. This has led developed nations to accelerate research and shorten the licensure process for COVID-19 vaccines, but these changes have caused widespread concerns about vaccine safety. Research literature has long indicated that citizens' perceptions of protective actions will determine their behaviors, and thus, the relationship between vaccine perception and vaccination intention needs to be assessed. To better understand vaccination willingness, especially in rural populations, this study surveyed 492 households from six townships in the Ya'an region of China's Sichuan Province in November 2020. The survey followed the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM) framework for collecting perceptions about the influenza and COVID-19 vaccines as protective actions, information sources, emergency preparedness, emotional response, and demographic characteristics. The results showed that influenza vaccine perceptions significantly affected people's COVID-19 vaccination perceptions and intentions. Unlike previous vaccination willingness and other COVID-19 studies, this study found that perceptions of resource-related attributes and health-related attributes both affected COVID-19 vaccination intentions, but the former were slightly stronger than the latter. Moreover, these effects were strongest among respondents who had the most positive perceptions of their influenza vaccine experience. This study's findings will benefit local authorities in designing appropriate policies and measures (e.g., hazard education, risk communication, vaccination convenience enhancement) for increasing vaccination compliance for the current and future pandemics.

Understanding How People Make Decision about Preventive Behavior against COVID-19: A Case from Rural Areas in Western Iran

The COVID-19 pandemic is the most significant health challenge humans experienced since World War 2, and its course can be affected by the stringency in undertaking individual and collective protective behavior. In this study, the health belief model structures in adopting the protective behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic were assessed. A sample of 375 household heads living in the rural areas of Lorestan Province was selected through a multi-stage stratified and random sampling method. Structural equation modeling showed that knowledge, perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, self-efficacy, and cues to action affect the protective behaviors of Iranian rural households during COVID-19. Cues to action and knowledge were the most important predictors of protective behaviors in rural households. The results suggest the necessity to emphasize enhancing knowledge to highlight the negative impacts of COVID-19 and train rural households regarding the proper and effective preventive measures. © 2022, Tarbiat Modares University. All rights reserved.

Impact of lockdown and government subsidies on rural households at early COVID-19 pandemic in China

Purpose Given the scarcity of data during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic in China, the decision-making for non-pharmaceutical policies was mostly based on insufficient evidence. The purpose of this study is to assess the effectiveness of these policies, such as lockdown and government subsidies, on rural households and identify policy implications for China and other countries in dealing with pandemics. Design/methodology/approach The authors survey 2,408 rural households by telephone from 101 counties across 17 provinces in China during the first stage of the pandemic (March 2020). The authors use the ordered probit model and linear regression model to study the overall impact of policies and then use the quantile regression model and sub-sample regression method to study the heterogeneity of the effects of government policies. Findings The authors find that logistics disruption due to lockdown negatively affected rural households. Obstructed logistics is associated with a more significant loss for high-income households, while its impact on the loss expectation of low-income households is more severe. Breeding and other industries such as transport and sales suffer more from logistics than cultivation. The impact of logistics on intensive agricultural entities is more serious than that on professional farms. The government subsidy is more effective at reducing loss for low-income households. Lockdown and government subsidies have shown heterogeneous impacts on rural households. Practical implications The overall economic losses experienced by rural households in the early stages of the pandemic are controllable. The government policies of logistics and subsidies should target specific groups. Originality/value The authors evaluate the economic impacts of lockdown and government subsidies on rural households and show their heterogeneity among different groups. The authors further demonstrate the policy effectiveness in supporting rural households during the early stages of the pandemic and provide future policy guidance on major public health event.

The COVID-19 pandemic: access to relief under social assistance programs by rural households in India

Purpose - This paper aims at analyzing the determinants of access to relief under social assistance programs among rural households during COVID-19 outbreaks in India. Design/methodology/approach - The study is based on the data of COVID-19-Related Shocks Survey, which covered 5,200 rural households across 6 states of India namely Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. The access to relief has been assessed as relief-in kind (RIK) as a free special package of wheat, rice, and pulses, supplied through the public distribution system;and direct benefit transfer (DBT) in cash under the Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN) Yojana and the Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana (PMJDY). The association between demographic profiles of rural households and access to relief has been analyzed using the chi-square test. Further, marginal effects have been estimated to assess the determinants of rural households' access to relief. Findings -The results show a significant association between types of relief vis-a-vis demographic profiles of the rural households. A significant difference in access to relief among rural households is also evident across the states. Further, the analysis of the marginal effects indicates that female-headed households belonging to lower social class, depending on non-agricultural occupation with lower income, belonging to below poverty line families and seeking wage employment, are more likely to access relief as food grains;whereas male respondents with lower age, belonging to lower-income quartile with memberships in Self Help Groups are more likely to access the cash benefit transfers. Practical implications - The COVID-19 pandemic has affected the food security and livelihood of many across the globe, which necessitated provisioning a package of support to everyone, particularly rural poor households. The World Bank undertook the COVID-19-Related Shocks Survey to provide a quick policy response for managing the risk of COVID-19 outbreak effectively. The results of this study provide timely insights for developing an effective relief strategy for rural households during a crisis. Originality/value - There is limited investigation on access to relief by rural households during the COVID-19 outbreaks and factors affecting the access to relief in terms of cash and kind. This study has utilized a reliable data source to analyze the access of relief packages by the rural communities during the coronavirus outbreak.

COVID-19 and food security as catalyst of conflict among rural households in Nigeria: A study of Itaje community, Ondo state

Purpose: The compulsory lockdown issued by the Nigeria Government to curb the spread of the virus has undoubtedly negatively affected the livelihoods of households. As a result, many have lost their sources of income and have no other means for survival. It is important to note that it has the potential of triggering violent conflicts and civil unrest as a popular African adage goes as thus: "A hungry man is an angry man". Unfortunately, little attention has been given, neither has extant literature adequately covered the impact of the coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak as it directly affects households in a rural community in Nigeria. Design/methodology/approach: This study proceeded from on both a qualitative and quantitative method and adopted a mixed-method and case study research design. Data for this study was collected through primary and secondary data. Primary data for this study was collected through a questionnaire and focus group discussions (FGD). The questionnaire used for this study was a validated instrument designed by the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) to measure food security amongst households. The USDA household's instrument was used and then modified to access the food security status of households during the lockdown. Findings: Findings from this study revealed that households, in general, were categorised as having "very low food security" during the lockdown as they testified to all the food insecure conditions. In general, the food intake of household members reported irregular eating patterns as the household lacked the money to purchase food. This study further indicated that a high number of respondents see violence as a means of attaining food. Extreme volatility in their inability to access food as a result of food shortages and the inability to benefit from government palliatives has been found to trigger incidents of conflict and malnutrition on households. Research limitations/implications: This method was sampling method was adopted because of the compulsory and constitutional lockdown imposed by the government to curb the spread of the novel COVID-19 which limited the movement of the researcher to other households in the community which proved to be limited during the time this research was carried limiting the scope of the sample size. Originality/value: This research adopted mixed-method research and was written by the researchers who did the study. This paper was conducted during the mandatory lockdown issued by the Federal Government in Nigeria with to understand the impact of the mandatory lockdown on rural households using Ilaje local of Ondo state as a case study while establishing a link between food security and conflict. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)

The Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Food Security and Food Diversity of Iranian Rural Households.

With the onset of the coronavirus crisis, disruption of the domestic food supply chain, loss of revenue, and payments that affect food production have led to severe tensions and food security risks in many developing countries. The rural communities are more at risk of food insecurity due to less access to healthcare and social inequality. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on food security and food diversity of rural households. The sample included 375 household heads living in the rural areas of Khorramabad county, which was determined using a three-stage cluster sampling method. Data were collected using standard Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) and Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) questionnaires. The results showed that the food security situation of rural households has deteriorated, and consumption of some food groups changed during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results of the multinomial regression model showed that gender, level of education, monthly income, number of employed members, nutrition knowledge, employment status, livestock ownership, and access to credit were significantly associated with the food security of households during the COVID-19 pandemic. The household head's gender, level of education, monthly income, nutrition knowledge, employment status, livestock ownership, and access to credit were significantly associated with dietary diversity during the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on the findings, providing emergency food assistance and cash payments to food-insecure households can reduce the risk of food insecurity in rural households. It is suggested that government policies focus on identifying vulnerable households in rural areas, especially female-headed households, low-income households, and households without a wage income.

COVID-19 in rural Africa: Food access disruptions, food insecurity and coping strategies in Kenya, Namibia, and Tanzania.

This study assesses the extent of COVID-19-related food insecurity in Kenya, Tanzania, and Namibia. Using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale, we measure food insecurity in various dimensions and document several food access disruptions associated with the COVID-19 pandemic between April and July 2020. Furthermore, we assess the association of COVID-19 countermeasures with the adoption of various strategies in line with the coping strategies index. We rely on a unique phone survey that followed households who participated in an earlier field-based survey. First, through Ordinary Least-Squares and Probit regressions, we show a strong and statistically significant association between COVID-19 countermeasures and food access disruptions and food insecurity in each of the three countries. We then use a multivariate probit regression model to understand the use of the various coping strategies, including reducing food intake, increasing food search, and relying more on less nutritious foods. We provide evidence on the complementarities and trade-offs in using these coping strategies. COVID-19 and related lockdown measures coincided with a deleterious increase in food insecurity in rural Africa.

What Type of Households in Mongolia Are Most Hit by COVID-19?

The study aims to validate the measures taken by the government of Mongolia against COVID-19 and to analyse the negative impacts of COVID-19 on the livelihood of different types of households. The survey covers 362 households consisting of five different types, namely, apartment households, ger district households, herder households, vegetable growing households, and small farmer households. Principal component analysis is used to reduce the number of variables to a few factors that best explain the variation in the variables. Two to three components were found from the principal component analyses that describe (i) government policy, (ii) challenges due to COVID-19, and (iii) risk and vulnerability that occurred due to COVID-19. Multiple regression models attributed by the household’s type were used to analyse the impact of the selected variables on the households’ income. According to the regression results, herding households are the least affected, compared to the other four types of households. The government measures to mitigate the negative impacts of COVID-19 have better results for apartment households and ger district households. Rural households are less affected and seem to be more resilient to COVID-19 shocks than other households.

Transformational Impact of COVID-19 on Savings and Spending Patterns of Indian Rural Households

COVID-19 has spread across the globe at a shocking level and significantly affects the world economy. The pandemic has significantly impacted rural households, the primary workforce for industrialized urban areas, in every sector of rural businesses, including agriculture. Furthermore, the dearth of employment in the primary industry has also adversely influenced rural inhabitants' livelihood and financial decisions. COVID-19 changed the perception of people regarding their income and expenditure. This study is intended to analyse the transformation of savings and spending of rural households during COVID-19. A questionnaire was developed using a Likert scale to elicit study variables, and the collected data were analysed using structural equation modelling. The results showed that all types of savings had a positive and significant relationship with the savings motive of rural households during COVID-19. Further, customary and spontaneous spending had a positive and significant relationship spending pattern of rural households. Rural inhabitants were interested in compromising their spending and other forms of savings to have more emergency savings. Earlier studies have examined either the savings or the spending pattern of rural households, and studies on both savings and spending by rural households are very few. The present study thus adds to the existing literature in the field.

The effects of COVID-19 on livelihoods of rural households: South Wollo and Oromia Zones, Ethiopia.

Even though the COVID-19 pandemic is a global phenomenon that is heavily affecting the lives, livelihoods, and wellbeing of the entire population, the degree and severity of its effects are different among groups and sectors. In developing countries, where there is poor infrastructure coupled with a low level of education and a high incidence of poverty, the pandemic would result in increased unemployment, decreased income for daily labor, increased food insecurity, depletion of saving and relief measures, and disrupted the marketing system, among others. Recently, some studies have been conducted in Ethiopia regarding the impact of the pandemic on the people and the country as a whole by reviewing the literature and mobile call surveys. However, those studies fail to capture the representative sample and empirical data to forward informed decisions. To this end, the present study has investigated the effect of COVID-19 on the livelihood activities of smallholder farm households in South Wollo and Oromia administrative Zones, Ethiopia. A multistage random sampling procedure was employed to draw 275 respondents out of 32,214 household heads. Data were collected through interview schedules, key informants and case studies from September to November 2020. Descriptive statistics, econometric analysis and qualitative approaches were employed to analyze the data. The major livelihood activities in the study area are crop production (97.4%), livestock rearing (77.4%), daily work (47%), small business (31.4%), livestock trading (30.7%), remittance (24.8%), labor migration (14.8%), sale of firewood (11.1%) and income from Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) (17%). The study shows that the livelihoods of 88.89% of the households were affected by the pandemic. The pandemic significantly affected and forced households to cease their livelihood activities such as daily labor (34.82%), small business trade (26.3%), livestock trading (23.7%), income from remittance (21.49%) and labor migration (11.48%). This implies that the pandemic particularly affected non-farm and off-farm livelihood diversification strategies. Therefore, the government and other rural development partners should focus on immediate and long-term intervention strategies to recover the most affected households through social security programs, creating market linkage and revolve funding mechanisms.

Social (in)security — the ambivalence of villagers’ perceptions during COVID-19

The aim of the study is to provide a subjective assessment of security in the social dimension of rural households during the COVID-19 pandemic. To achieve the objective, a four-stage primary study of households in Poland was designed and conducted. Subjective assessments of households’ perceptions about social security are presented. The possibility of loss of financial stability, job loss and deterioration of the household situation was assessed. The respondents also assessed the possibility of a worsening of the situation in the country, an increase in family poverty and an increase in unemployment in Poland. One of the most important findings is the dichotomy of the perceptions of the respondents, who assess the situation of their household better than that of the country. A different perspective on security is also provided by the rural optimism index, which can also be seen as a measure of vulnerability to social security. The considerations and analyses presented can be useful for both theoretical and practical purposes. The study improves knowledge on how households function under conditions of vulnerability. They also constitute a voice in the discussion on security in the social dimension. © 2022 International Journal of Health Sciences.

Factors affecting access to clean cooking fuel among rural households in India during COVID-19 pandemic.

This paper investigates the factors affecting access to clean cooking fuel among rural Indian households during the COVID-19 outbreak, based on World Bank's rural impact survey, covering 2731 rural households. Our analysis shows a significant decline in access to clean fuel among rural households from 35% in 2018 i.e. before COVID-19 to 19.7% during the COVID-19 pandemic. This implies that in order to meet their cooking needs, many rural households have switched from conventional fuels, which have numerous health and environmental concerns. The association between states and socio-demographic profiles of rural households with access to sources of cooking fuel shows a significant difference. The analysis results further indicate that socio-demographic characteristics and asset holdings of the rural households are the key factors that determine access to clean cooking fuel during COVID-19. Among the socio-demographic variables, age, gender, family size, social category, and income level are estimated to be significant factors that affect the access to clean fuel for cooking. Similarly, ownership of assets such as exclusive kitchen room, refrigerator, pressure cooker, television, and furniture are significant factors affecting access to clean cooking fuel among Indian rural households. Additionally, this study provides policy insights on developing mechanisms to ensure that rural households have an access to clean cooking fuel during crisis situations such as COVID-19.

The Impact of Livelihood Assets on the Food Security of Farmers in Southern Iran during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

The impact of COVID-19 on farmers' livelihoods and food security is a key concern in rural communities. This study investigates the impacts of the livelihood assets on the food security of rural households during the COVID-19 pandemic and determines those factors related to food security. The population of this study includes rural households in Dashtestan county, Bushehr province, in southern Iran. Based on the Krejcie and Morgan sampling table, 293 households were selected using the convenience sampling method. To measure food security, the American standard index and ordinal regression are used to analyze the factors. The results of the food security situation show highly precarious and food insecure situations among the studied rural households. The regression analysis shows that the most important assets affecting the food security of rural households under COVID-19 are financial, psychological, physical, and human assets, respectively. The results can help rural development planners and policymakers to improve both livelihoods and food security in rural communities, not just during the COVID-19 pandemic, but also in its aftermath.

COVID-19 in the Greater Mekong Subregion: how resilient are rural households?

In this paper we submit some thoughts on the possible implications of the COVID-19 pandemic for rural people in the countries of the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS). We base our observations and conclusions on our long-term research experience in the region. The paper focuses on the economics of rural households during this crisis period and its aftermath. We conclude that country differences clearly exist due to their different stages of development. However, while rural households belong to the Corona risk groups, they are also resilient to such a shock. We submit that Governments in the GMS should strengthen policies that conserve the safety-net function of rural villages.